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Flight
Dr. Jay Maron
jaymaron.com


Flight

Wing lift

An wing generates lift at the cost of drag. Lift exceeds drag.

Wing drag force        =  F
Wing lift force        =  F
Wing lift-to-drag coef.=  Qw =  F / F

Wing aspect ratio

The lift-to-drag coefficient Qw is proportional to wing length divided by wing width.

Wing length            =  L
Wing width             =  W
Wing lift-to-drag coef.=  Qw ~  L/W    =  Wing aspect ratio.

Wing lift-to-drag coefficient

Wing width varies along the length of the wing. We define an effective width as

Width = ½ Area / Length

"Area" is the total for both wings, and "Length" is for one wing.

Aspect ratio is Length/Width.

               Qw     Aspect   Wing    Wing   Wing
                      ratio    length  width  area
                               meter   meter  meter2

U-2             23     10.6                            High-altitude spy plane
Albatros        20               1.7                   Largest bird
Gossamer        20     10.4     14.6     1.4    41.3   Gossamer albatross, human-powered aircraft
Hang glider     15
Tern            12
Herring Gull    10
Airbus A380      7.5    7.5     36.3    11.6   845
Concorde         7.1     .7     11.4    15.7   358.2
Boeing 747       7      7.9     23.3    11.3   525
Cessna 150       7      2.6      4.5     1.7    15
Sparrow          4
Human wingsuit   2.5    1        1.0     1.0     2
Flying lemur     ?                                      Most capable gliding mammal.  2 kg max
Flying squirrel  2.0

Wing angle of attack

Changing wing angle changes lift and drag. There is an optimum angle that maximizes the lift-to-drag coefficient.

If the angle is larger than the optimal angle, you gain lift at the expense of drag. If you make the angle of attack too large, lift ceases and the plane stalls.


Air drag

The air drag force is

Air density            =  D  =  1.22 kg/meter2
Velocity               =  V
Cross-sectional area   =  A
Drag coefficient       =  C
Drag force             =  F  =  ½ C D A V2

Parachute at terminal velocity
Human mass             =  M        =  80  kg
Gravity                =  g        =  10  meter/second2
Gravity force          =  F       = 800  Newton
Chute drag coefficient =  C        =   1  Dimensionless
Air density            =  D        =1.22  kg/meter2
Parachute area         =  A        = 100  meter2
Drag force             =  F = ½ C D A V2 = F
Terminal velocity      =  V        = 3.6  meter/second

Maximum speed

Drag force             =  F  =  ½ C D A V2
Drag power             =  P  =  F V  =  ½ C D A V3

     Drag coef    Drag area   Power   Max speed
   dimensionless   meter2     Watt   meter/second


Bike     1            .5        400      11
Car       .4         3       300000      74

Wing drag coefficient

             Cw

F-4 Phantom   .021    (subsonic)
Cessna 310    .027
Airbus A380   .027
Boeing 747    .031
F-4 Phantom   .044    (supersonic)

Gliding

A glider is unpowered. The more efficient the glider, the smaller the glide angle. The minimum glide angle is determined by the wing lift/drag coefficient.

Drag force             =  F
Lift force             =  F  =  Fgrav
Wing lift/drag ratio   =  Qw =  F / F
Horizontal speed       =  V
Vertical descent speed =  V
Glide ratio            =  G  =  V / V
Gravitational force    =  Fgrav
Drag power             =  Pdrag  =  F   V
Power from gravity     =  Pgrav  =  Fgrav V
If the glider descends at constant velocity,
Pdrag  =  Pgrav
The goal of a glider is to maximize the glide ratio
V / V  =  (Pdrag / F)  /  (Pgrav / Fgrav)
         =  Fgrav / F
         =  Qw
The glide ratio is equal to the lift coefficient. Qw = G

Level flight

Air density           =  D
Wing area             =  A
Wing drag coefficient =  Cw
Wing drag             =  F  =  ½ Cw D A V2
Wing lift             =  F
Wing lift/drag ratio  =  Qw  =  F / F
Aircraft speed        =  V
Aircraft mass         =  M
Gravity               =  g   =  9.8 meters/second2
Gravity force         =  Fgrav=  M g
Engine force          =  Feng =  V F
Drag power            =  P  =  F V  =  ½ Cw D A V3
Agility (Power/mass)  =  p   =  P / M  =  V g / Qw
For flight at constant velocity,
Feng = F         Horizontal force balance

F   = Fgrav      Vertical force balance

F   = F Qw      Definition of the wing lift/drag coefficient

Fgrav= Fdrag Qw   →   M g = Qw ½ Cw D A V2

Cruising speed       =  V  =  M½ g½ Qw (½ Cw D A)   ~  M1/6

Agility (Power/mass) =  p  =  M½ g3/2 Qw-3/2 (½ Cw D A)  ~  M1/6

Aircraft energy/mass =  e                              ~  M0

Flight time          =  T  =  e/p                      ~  M-1/6

Range                =  X  =  V T                      ~  M0

For the mass scalings, we assume that wing area scales as M2/3.


Wingtip vortex

A wingtip creates a vortex as it moves. Wingtips are often equipped with a vertical element to damp the vortex. The vertical element increases the effective wing length and improves the lift-to-drag coefficient. coefficient.

Birds fly in a "V" formation to use the updraft from their neighbor's wingtip vortices.


Hovering flight

Hovering propeller

For propellers,

Rotor radius     =  R
Air density      =  D  =  1.22 kg/meter3 at sea level
Rotor tip speed  =  V
Rotor width param=  Cr
Rotor lift force =  F =  D Cr R2 V2
Rotor drag force =  F
Rotor lift/drag  =  Qr =  F / F
Rotor power      =  P  =  F V  =  F V / Qr
Rotor force/power=  Z  =  F/ P
                       =  Qr / V
                       =  R F D½ Cr½ Qr
                       =  R F D½ qr
Rotor quality    =  qr =  Qr Cr½
The physical parameters of a propeller are {Qr,Cr,qr}, with typical values of
Qr = 5.5
Cr =  .045
qr = 1.17
Most propellers have 2 blades and some have 3. If there are 4 or more blades then qr declines.

The parameters are not independent. They're related through the blade aspect ratio.

K  ≈  Aspect ratio
Cr ≈  K
Qr ≈  K
qr ≈  K½

Hovering time
Aircraft mass        =  M
Gravity              =  g
Aircraft force       =  F =  M g
Rotor radius         =  R                  ~  M1/3
Hovering force/power =  Z  =  qr D½ R F  ~  M-1/6
Hovering power/mass  =  p  =  g / Z        ~  M1/6
Aircraft energy/mass =  e                  ~  M0
Hovering time        =  T  =  e / p        ~  M-1/6

Drive propeller

A drive propeller has to move substantially faster than the aircraft to be effective. This distinguishes it from a hovering propeller, which is designed to minimze propeller speed.

Rotor radius      =  R
Air density       =  D  =  1.22 kg/meter3
Aircraft speed    =  U
Rotor speed coef. =  s
Rotor tip speed   =  V  =  s U
Rotor lift force  =  F
Rotor drag force  =  F
Rotor lift/drag   =  Qr =  F / F
Rotor power       =  P  =  F V  =  F V / Q
Rotor force/power =  Z  =  Q / V
Typically, Q ~ 5.5 and s ~ 3.
Power/Mass ratio

A commonly-appearing quantity is the power/mass ratio, which is inversely proportional to the force/power ratio.

Mass              =  M
Gravity           =  g
Rotor quality     =  q
Hover force       =  F  =  M g
Hover power       =  P
Force/Power ratio =  Z  =  F/P
Power/Mass ratio  =  p  =  P/M  =  g/Z

Typical parameters
Air density       =  Dair=  1.22
Seawater density  =  Dwater= 1025
Gravity           =  g   =  9.8     meters/second2
Wing drag coef.   =  Cw  =   .03
Wing Lift/drag    =  Qw  =  7
Rotor lift/drag   =  Qr  =  5.5
Rotor width param =  Cr  =   .045
Rotor quality     =  qr  =  1.17  =  Qr Cr½
Rotor force/power =  Zr
Rotor agility     =  pr  =  g/Zr
Wing agility      =  pw

Propeller-driven level flight
Aircraft mass        =  M
Gravity              =  g
Air density          =  D  =  1.22 kg/meter3
Aircraft speed       =  U
Rotor speed coef.    =  s
Rotor tip speed      =  V  =  s U
Aircraft lift force  =  F  =  M g
Rotor lift force     =  F
Wing lift/drag       =  Qw =  F / F
Rotor drag force     =  F
Rotor lift/drag      =  Qr =  F / F
Rotor power          =  P  =  F V  =  F V / Qr  =  F V / (Qr Qw)
Aircraft force/power =  Z  =  F / P  =  [Qr Qw / s] / U
There is a tradeoff between Qr and s.
Number of rotors

The larger the number of rotors, the less power is required to fly. The efficiency of a rotor is characterized by the force per power.

Number of rotors  =  N
Aircraft mass     =  M
Total rotor mass  =  m
Rotor mass        =  m/N
Rotor constant    =  C
Rotor radius      =  R  =  C m1/3 N-1/3
Gravity           =  g
Force per rotor   =  F  =  Mg/N
Rotor quality     =  q  =  1.17
Air density       =  D  =  1.22
Rotor quality     =  Q  =  q D½  =  1.29
Rotor force/power =  q D½ C (m/N)1/3 (Mg/N)
                  =  q D½ C N1/6 m1/3 M g
For example, in dimensionless units,
Rotors   Rotor   Rotor    Rotor      Rotor
         mass    radius   force   force/power

  1        1       1        1         1
  2         .5      .79      .5       1.12
  3         .33     .69      .33      1.20
  4         .25     .63      .25      1.26
  6         .167    .55      .167     1.35
  8         .125    .50      .125     1.41
 16         .062    .40      .062     1.59

Altitude

Commercial airplanes fly at high altitude where the air is thin. The thinner the air, the less the drag force and the less the energy required to travel a given distance.

                Altitude   Density
                  (km)     (kg/m3)

Sea level          0       1.22
                   1       1.14
                   2       1.02
Cessna 150         3        .79
Mount Everest      8.8      .46
Boeing 747        11.0      .36
Airbus A380       13.1      .26
Concorde          18.3      .115
F-22 Raptor       19.8      .091
U-2               21.3      .071
SR-71 Blackbird   25.9      .034

Engines


Turboprop

In a turboprop, incoming air is compressed by a fan and then mixed with fuel. The exploding air powers a crankshaft that turns the propeller. This is the most efficient engine up to Mach .5.


Turbofan
In a turbofan the exploding fuel+air mixture powers a fan. Some of the incoming air is reacted with fuel and most of it is bypassed, channelled instead to the fan and propelled aftward.

Turbofans are the most efficient kind of engine from Mach .5 to 1.0. All commercial aircraft that fly close to Mach 1 are turbofans.


Turbojet

A turbojet uses most of its intake air for combustion and most of the thrust comes from jet action rather than from a fan. Such engines can go beyond Mach 1.


Afterburner

F/A-18 Hornet
SR-71 Blackbird
SR-71 Blackbird engine test

A turbofan in afterburner mode injects fuel aft of the fan. The fuel explodes and adds thrust.


Ramjet

If the aircraft is moving faster than Mach 1 then the incoming air doesn't need to be compressed with a fan. The ram pressure from slowing down the air in the combustion chamber is enough.

Ramjets work up to Mach 6, at which point the incoming compressed air becomes too hot.

Ramjets are simpler than turbofans because they don't have any moving parts. They are often used for missiles.


Scramjet

NASA X-23
Turbofan, ramjet, scramjet

In a scramjet the incoming air is compressed enough to make it explodable but not enough to slow it down below Mach 1. Such an engine sidesteps the heating concern of a ramjet and can go up to Mach 15.


SR-71 Blackbird engine


de Laval nozzle

In a de Laval nozzle, incomming subsonic air accelerates as it approaches the nozzle. The nozzle is shaped so that the air becomes supersonic at the narrowest point, after which it continues accelerating as it expands aftward.


Specific impulse

Exhaust velocity  =  V
Gravity constant  =  g
Specific impulse  =  I  =  V/g

Air compression

A jet engine compresses air before mixing it with fuel. For adiabatic compression,

Adiabatic index =  A  =  1.4      (for air)
Density         =  D
Pressure        =  P  ≈  DA  ≈  D T
Temperature     =  T  ≈  DA-1
The larger the air density the more efficient the engine. Increased density comes with increased temperature and the performance of an engine is determined by the quality of the high-temperature alloys.

The following table shows the properties of an adiabatically compressed gas in relative units and in Kelvin. In practice the gas compression is not adiabatic and the pressure and temperature values are larger.

Density  Pressure   Temperature   Temperature
                                   (Kelvin)
   1      1             1            250         Ambient air at 10 km altitude
   2      2.64          1.32         330
   3      4.66          1.55         388
   4      6.96          1.74         435
   6     12.3           2.05         512
   8     18.4           2.30         574
  12     32.4           2.70         675
  16     48.5           3.03         758
  24     85.6           3.57         891
  32    128.0           4.0         1000
Aircraft engines:
                                   Pressure ratio

Airbus A350   Rolls-Royce Trent XWB     52
Boeing 747    General Electric CF6      42
Boeing 777    General Electric GE90     42
Airbus A380   Rolls-Royce Trent 900     39
F-15          General Electric F110     30
Concorde      Rolls-Royce 593           15.5

Aircraft data

Cessna 150
Boeing 747
Airbus 380

SR-71 Blackbird
U-2 spy plane
Concorde
Concorde temperature at Mach 2

         Vcruise  Vmax  Mass  Takeoff  Ceiling  Density  Force  Wing   Len   Wing   Range
           m/s   m/s   ton    ton      km      kg/m3     kN     m2     m     m      km

Cessna 150    42   56     .60     .73  4.3   .79      1.34   15     7.3  10.1    778
Boeing 747   254  274  178.1   377.8  11.0   .36   1128     525    70.6  64.4  14200
Boeing 787-9 251  262  128.9   254.0  13.1   .26    640     360.5  62.8  60.1  14140
Airbus A380  243  262  276.8   575    13.1   .26   1360     845    72.2  79.8  15200
Concorde     599  605   78.7   190.5  18.3   .115   560     358.2  61.7  25.6   7223
F-22 Raptor  544  740   19.7    38.0  19.8   .091   312      78.0  18.9  13.6   2960
U-2          192  224    6.49   18.1  21.3   .071    84.5    92.9  19.2  31.4  10308
SR-71        954  983   30.6    78.0  25.9   .034   302     170    32.7  16.9   5400
Mach 1 = 298 m/s.

Solar powered aircraft
                Cruise  Max  Ceiling  Mass  Cruise  Motor  Solar  Cells  Battery
                 m/s    m/s    kW     tons    kw     kW    cells   m2     tons
                                                            kW

Aquila           35.8          27.4     .40   5.0                          .2
Solar Impulse 2  25.0   38.9   12      2.3           52     66    269.5    .633

The Loon balloon is 15 meters wide, 12 meters, tall, and .076 mm thick. The solar panels generate 100 Watts and the payload is 10 kg. It is too large to be self-propelled and relies and buoyancy modulation and air currents to maneuver.


History of human-powered flight
1961  Piggott accomplishes the first human-powered flight, covering a distance
      of 650 meters.
1977  The "Gossomer Condor 2" flies 2172 meters in a figure-eight and wins
      the Kremer Prize.  It was built by Paul MacCready and piloted by amateur
      cyclist and hang-glider pilot Bryan Allen. 
      It cruised at 5.0 m/s with a power of 260 Watts.
1988  The MIT Daedalus 88 piloted by Kanellos Kanellopoulos flies from Crete
      to Santorini (115.11 km), setting the distance record, which still stands.
Human-powered helicopters can only reach a height of 3 meters and can only hover for 20 seconds.

Agility
               Mass    Power   Agility
               (kg)    (kW)   (Watts/kg)

Human             75    2500     33
BMW i8          1485     170    114
Cessna 150       600      75    125
Airbus A380   276000   49000    178
Formula-1 car    642     619    964
SR-71          30600   33000   1078
F-22 Raptor    19700   33000   1675
If you put a wing on a BMW i8, it would be able to go fast enough to take off.
Orville and Wilbur Wright

The Wright brothers designed, manufactured, and sold their own line of bicycles and used the profits to fund their aircraft research.
They began by designing wings and gliders.
They were the first to use wind tunnels to test wings. Their wing designs outperformed European designs
They innovated the design of steering and stability systems
They advanced the design of propellers.

First flight
82nd flight: 2.75 miles and 304 seconds
Orville was injured in a crash and a passenger was killed
The original aircraft
\


Bird flight

Flapping the wings propels the bird upward and then the bird glides downward until the next flap. Forward propulsion comes more from gravitational descent than from flapping.


Combat aircraft

F-22 Raptor
F-35 Lightning
F-15 Eagle

F-15 Eagle cockpit
F-16 Falcon
MiG-25 Foxbat

               Speed  Mass  Takeoff  Ceiling  Thrust  Range  Cost  Number Year Stealth
               Mach   ton     ton      km       kN     km     M$

SR-71 Blackbird  3.3   30.6   78.0     25.9    302    5400          32   1966
MiG-25 Foxbat    2.83  20.0   36.7     20.7    200.2  1730        1186   1970
MiG-31 Foxhound  2.83  21.8   46.2     20.6    304    1450         519   1981
F-22A Raptor     2.51  19.7   38.0     19.8    312    2960   150   195   2005   *
F-15 Eagle       2.5   12.7   30.8     20.0    211.4  4000    28   192   1976
F-14 Tomcat      2.34  19.8   33.7     15.2    268    2960         712   1974
MiG-29 Fulcrum   2.25  11.0   20.0     18.0    162.8  1430    29  1600   1982
Su-35            2.25  18.4   34.5     18.0    284    3600    40    48   1988
F-4 Phantom II   2.23  13.8   28.0     18.3           1500        5195   1958
Chengdu J-10     2.2    9.8   19.3     18.0    130    1850    28   400   2005
F-16 Falcon      2.0    8.6   19.2     15.2    127    1200    15   957   1978
Chengdu J-7      2.0    5.3    9.1     17.5     64.7   850        2400   1966
Dassault Rafale  1.8   10.3   24.5     15.2    151.2  3700    79   152   2001
Euro Typhoon     1.75  11.0   23.5     19.8    180    2900    90   478   2003
F-35A Lightning  1.61  13.2   31.8     15.2    191    2220    85    77   2006   *
B-52              .99  83.2  220       15.0    608   14080    84   744   1952
B-2 Bomber        .95  71.7  170.6     15.2    308   11100   740    21   1997   *
A-10C Warthog     .83  11.3   23.0     13.7     80.6  1200    19   291   1972
Drone RQ-180          ~15              18.3          ~2200               2015   *
Drone X-47B       .95   6.4   20.2     12.2           3890           2   2011   *  Carrier
Drone Avenger     .70          8.3     15.2     17.8  2900    12     3   2009   *
Drone RQ-4        .60   6.8   14.6     18.3     34   22800   131    42   1998
Drone Reaper      .34   2.2    4.8     15.2      5.0  1852    17   163   2007
Drone RQ-170                           15                           20   2007   *

India HAL AMCA   2.5   14.0   36.0     18.0    250    2800     ?     0   2023   *
India HAL FGFA   2.3   18.0   35.0     20.0    352    3500     ?     0  >2020   *
Mitsubishi F-3   2.25   9.7     ?        ?      98.1  3200     ?     1   2024   *
Chengdu J-20     2.0   19.4   36.3       ?     359.8     ?   110     4   2018   *
Sukhoi PAK FA    2.0   18.0   35.0     20.0    334    3500    50     6   2018   *
Shenyang J-31    1.8   17.6   25.0       ?     200    4000     ?     0   2018   *

Mach 1 = 295 m/s
5th generation fighters: F-22, F-35, X-2, HAL AMCA, J-20, J-31, Sukhoi PAK FA

An aircraft moving at Mach 2 and turning with a radius of 1.2 km has a g force of 7 g's.

X-47B
RQ-170 Sentinel
MQ-9 Reaper


Missiles

Air to air missiles

F-22 and the AIM-120
AIM-9
Astra
Predator and Hellfire
Helfire in a transparent case

                Mach   Range  Missile  Warhead  Year  Engine
                        km      kg       kg

Russia  R-37      6      400    600      60    1989   Solid rocket
Japan   AAM-4     5      100    224       ?    1999   Ramjet
India   Astra     4.5+   110    154      15    2010   Solid rocket
EU      Meteor    4+     200    185       ?    2012   Ramjet
Russia  R-77-PD   4      200    175      22.5  1994   Ramjet
USA     AIM-120D  4      180    152      18    2008   Solid rocket
Israel  Derby-IR  4      100    118      23           Solid rocket
Israel  Rafael    4       50    118      23    1990   Solid rocket
France  MICA      4       50    112      12    1996   Solid rocket
Israel  Python 5  4       20    105      11           Solid rocket
Russia  K-100     3.3    400    748      50    2010   Solid rocket
UK      ASRAAM    3+      50     88      10    1998   Solid rocket
Germany IRIS-T    3       25     87.4          2005   Solid rocket
USA     AIM-9X    2.5+    35     86       9    2003   Solid rocket
USA     Hellfire  1.3      8     49       9    1984   Solid rocket  AGM-114

Ground to air missiles

David's Sling
Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)

SM-3
SM-3
Chu-SAM
RIM-174

                 Mach   Range  Missile  Warhead  Year  Engine     Stages   Anti
                         km      kg       kg                              missile

USA     SM-3      15.2   2500   1500       0    2009   Solid rocket  4       *
Israel  Arrow      9      150   1300     150    2000   Solid rocket  2
USA     THAAD      8.24   200    900       0    2008   Solid rocket          *
USA     David      7.5    300                   2016   Solid rocket          *
Russia  S-400      6.8    400   1835     180    2007   Solid rocket          *
India   Prithvi    5     2000   5600            2006   Solid, liquid 2       *
India   AAD Ashwin 4.5    200   1200       0    2007   Solid rocket  1
Taiwan  Sky Bow 2  4.5    150   1135      90    1998   Solid rocket
China   HQ-9       4.2    200   1300     180    1997   Solid rocket  2
USA     Patriot 3  4.1     35    700      90    2000   Solid rocket          *
China   KS-1       4.1     50    900     100    2006   Solid rocket          *
USA     RIM-174    3.5    460   1500      64    2013   Solid rocket  2
India   Barak 8    2      100    275      60    1015   Solid rocket  2
Japan   Chu-SAM                  570      73    2003   Solid rocket
Korea   KM-SAM             40    400            2015   Solid rocket

Ground to ground missiles

Tomahawk
Tomahawk

                Mach   Range  Missile  Warhead  Year  Engine        Launch
                        km      kg       kg                         platform

USA     Tomahawk   .84  2500   1600     450    1983   Turbofan      Ground
USA     AGM-129    .75  3700   1300     130    1990   Turbofan      B-52 Bomber
USA     AGM-86     .73  2400   1430    1361    1980   Turbofan      B-52 Bomber

Hypersonic missiles

HTV-2
X-51
DARPA Falcon HTV-3

                   Speed   Mass  Range   Year
                   mach    tons   km

USA      SR-72         6                 Future. Successor to the SR-71 Blackbird
USA      HSSW          6           900   Future. High Speed Strike Weaspon
USA      HTV-2        20         17000   2 Test flights
USA      X-41          8                 Future
USA      X-51          5.1  1.8    740   2013    Tested. 21 km altitude. Will become the HSSW
Russia   Object 4202  10                 Tested
India    HSTDV        12                 Future
China    Wu-14        10                 2014   7 tests.  also called the DZ-ZF
The SR-72 has two engines: a ramjet for below Mach 3 and a ramjet/scramjet for above Mach 3. The engines share an intake and thrust nozzle.
Intercontinental ballistic missiles

First ICBM: SM-65 Atlas, completed in 1958
Titan 2
Peacekeeper
Minuteman 3
Minuteman 3

Trident 2
Peacekeeper
Minuteman 3

                     Payload  Paylod   Range  Mass    Launch   Year
                     (tons)   (Mtons)  (km)   (tons)

USA     Titan 2               9        15000   154     Silo    1962   Inactive
USA     Minuteman 3            .9      13000    35.3   Silo    1970
USA     Trident 2              .95     11300    58.5   Sub     1987
USA     Titan                 3.75     10200   151.1   Silo    1959   Inactive
USA     Peacekeeper           3         9600    96.8   Silo    1983   Inactive
Russia  RS-24                 1.2      12000     49    Road    2007
Russia  Voevoda         8.7   8        11000    211.4  Silo    1986
Russia  Layner                         11000     40    Sub     2011
Russia  RS-28 Sarmat   10              10000   >100    Silo    2020   Liquid rocket
Russia  Bulava                 .9      10000     36.8  Sub     2005
France  M51.1                 1        10000    52     Sub     2006
China   DF-5B                 8        15000    183    Silo    2015
China   DF-5A                 4        15000    183    Silo    1983
China   JL-2                  6        12000     42    Sub     2001
China   DF-5                  5        12000    183    Silo    1971
China   DF-31A                3        12000     42    Road
China   DF-31                 1         8000     42    Road    1999
China   DF-4                  3.3       7000     82    Silo    1974
India   Surya          15              16000     70    Road    2022
India   Agni-VI        10              12000     70    Road    2017
India   Agni-V          6               8000     50    Road    2012
India   K-4             2.5             3500     17    Sub     2016   Solid. Arihant nuclear sub
India   K-15           ~6.5              750      1.0  Sub     2010   Solid. 2 stages. Arihant nuclear sub
Israel  Jericho 3        .75           11500     30    Road    2008
N. Kor. Taepodong-2                     6000     79.2  Pad     2006
Pakis.  Shaheen 3                       2750           Road    2015   Solid. 2 stages.
Pakis.  Shaheen 2                       2000     25    Road    2014   Solid. 2 stages.
Pakis.  Ghauri 2        1.2             1800     17.8  Road
Pakis.  Ghauri 1         .7             1500     15.8  Road    2003   Liquid. 1 stage.
Iran    Shabab 3        1.0             1930                   2003
Payload in "tons" represents the mass of the payload.
Payload in "Mtons" is the nuclear detonation payload in terms of tons of TNT.

World War 2 bombers

Avro Lancaster
B-29 Superfortress
Heinkel He 177

Handley Page Halifax
B-17 Flying Fortress
B-17 Flying Fortress

focke-Wulf Condor
Mitsubishi Ki-67
Mitsubishi G4M

Yokosuka Ginga
Tupolev Tu-2

                            Max    Mass   Max   Bombs  Max   Engine   Range    #    Year  Bombs * #
                           speed          mass         alt                   Built
                            kph    ton    ton    ton   km    kWatt     km                   MTon

UK       Avro Lancaster        454  16.6   32.7  10.0   6.5   4x 954   4073   7377  1942    74
USA      B-17 Flying Fortress  462  16.4   29.7   3.6  10.5   4x 895   3219  12731  1938    46
USA      B-29 Superfortress    574  33.8   60.6   9.0   9.7   4x1640   5230   3970  1944    36
UK       Handley Page Halifax  454  17.7   24.7   5.9   7.3   4x1205   3000   6176  1940    36.4
Soviet   Petlyakov Pe-2        580   5.9    8.9   1.6   8.8   2x 903   1160  11427  1941    18
UK       Short Stirling        454  21.3   31.8   6.4   5.0   4x1025   3750   2371  1939    15.2
Soviet   Tupolev Tu-2          528   7.6   11.8   3.8   9.0   2x1380   2020   2257  1942     8.6
Germany  Heinkel He 177        565  16.8   32.0   7.2   8.0   2x2133   1540   1169  1942     8.4
Germany  Fokke-Wulf Condor     360  17.0   24.5   5.4   6.0   4x 895   3560    276  1937     1.5
Japan    Mitsubishi Ki-67      537   8.6   13.8   1.6   9.5   2x1417   3800    767  1942     1.2
Japan    Yokosuka P1Y Ginga    547   7.3   13.5   1.0   9.4   2x1361   5370   1102  1944     1.1
Japan    Mitsubishi G4M        428   6.7   12.9   1.0   8.5   2x1141   2852   2435  1941     2.4

UK       Total                                                                             126
USA      Total                                                                              82
Soviet   Total                                                                              27
Germany  Total                                                                              10
Japan    Total                                                                               5

Curtis LeMay: Flying fighters is fun. Flying bombers is important.


World War 2 heavy fighters

A-20 Havoc
F7F Tigercat
P-38 Lightning

P-61
P-38
Airspeed chart

Fairey Firefly
Beaufighter
Mosquito
Fairey Fulmar
Defiant

Messerschmitt 410
Heinkel He-219
Junkers Ju-88

Do-217
Me-110

Kawasaki Ki-45
J1N

Gloster Meteor
Me-262 Swallow
Heinkel He-162

                       Max   Climb  Mass   Max   Bombs  Max   Engine   Range   #   Year
                      speed                mass         alt                  Built
                       kph    m/s   ton    ton    ton   km    kWatt     km

USA    P51 Black Widow  589  12.9  10.6   16.2   2.9   10.6  2x1680   982    706  1944
USA    A-20 Havoc       546  10.2   6.8   12.3    .9    7.2  2x1200  1690   7478  1941
USA    F7F Tigercat     740  23     7.4   11.7    .9   12.3  2x1566  1900    364  1944
USA    P-38 Lightning   667  24.1   5.8    9.8   2.3   13.0  2x1193        10037  1941
UK     Fairey Firefly   509   8.8   4.4    6.4    .9    8.5  1x1290  2090   1702  1943
UK     Mosquito         668  14.5   6.5   11.0   1.8   11.0  2x1103  2400   7781  1941
UK     Beaufighter      515   8.2   7.1   11.5    .3    5.8  2x1200  2816   5928  1940
UK     Fairie Fulmar    438         3.2    4.6    .1    8.3  1x 970  1255    600  1940
UK     Defiant          489   9.0   2.8    3.9   0      9.2  1x 768   749   1064  1939
Japan  Dragon Slayer    540  11.7   4.0    5.5   0     10.0  2x 783         1701  1941  Ki-45
Japan  Flying Dragon    537   6.9   8.6   13.8   1.6    9.5  2x1417  3800    767  1942  Ki-67
Japan  J1N Moonlight    507   8.7   4.5    8.2   0           2x 840  2545    479  1942
Ger.   Hornet           624   9.3   6.2   10.8   1.0   10.0  2x1287  2300   1189  1943
Ger.   Flying Pencil    557   3.5   9.1   16.7   4.0    7.4  2x1287  2145   1925  1941  Do-217
Ger.   Heinkel He-219   616               13.6   0      9.3  2x1324  1540    300  1943
Ger.   Junkers Ju-88    360        11.1   12.7   0      5.5  2x1044  1580  15183  1939
Ger.   Me-110           595  12.5          7.8   0     11.0  2x1085   900   6170  1937
SU     Petlyakov Pe-3   530  12.5   5.9    8.0    .7    9.1  2x 820  1500    360  1941
UK     Gloster Meteor   965  35.6   4.8    7.1    .9   13.1   Jet     965   3947  1944
Ger.   Me-262 Swallow   900 ~25     3.8    7.1   1.0   11.5   Jet    1050   1430  1944
Ger.   Heinkel He-162   840  23.4   1.7    2.8   0     12.0   Jet     975    320  1945

Me-262 Swallow jet  =  2x 8.8 kNewtons
Heinkel He-162 jet  =  1x 7.8 kNewtons
Gloster Meteor jet  =  2x16.0 kNewtons

World War 2 light fighters

P-39 Airacobra
P-40 Warhawk
P-43 Lancer

P-47 Thunderbolt
P-51 Mustang
P-63 Kingcobra

F2A Buffalo
F4F
F4U

F6F Hellcat
F8F Bearcat

Ki-27
Ki-43
Ki-44

Ki-61
Ki-84
Ki-100

A5M
Mitsubishi A6M Zero
A6M2

J2M
N1K

Hawker Tempest
Hawker Hurricane
Hawker Typhoon

Submarine Seafire
Submarine Spitfire

Fw-190
Bf-109

YaK-1
Yak-7
Yak-9
Polykarpov I-16

MiG-3
LaGG-3
La-5
La-7

                       Max   Climb  Mass   Max   Bombs  Max   Engine   Range   #    Year
                      speed                mass         alt                  Built
                       kph    m/s   ton    ton    ton   km    kWatt     km

USA    P-39 Airacobra   626  19.3   3.0    3.8    .2   10.7  1x 894   840   9588  1941
USA    P-63 Kingcobra   660  12.7   3.1    4.9    .7   13.1  1x1340   725   3303  1943
USA    F2A Buffalo      517  12.4   2.1    3.2   0     10.1  1x 890  1553    509  1939
USA    P-40 Warhawk     580  11.0   2.8    4.0    .9    8.8  1x 858  1100  13738  1939
USA    P-51 Mustang     703  16.3   3.5    5.5    .5   12.8  1x1111  2755 >15000  1942
USA    F4F Wildcat      515  11.2   2.7    4.0   0     10.4  1x 900  1337   7885  1940
USA    F6F Hellcat      629  17.8   4.2    7.0   1.8   11.4  1x1491  1520  12275  1943
USA    F8F Bearcat      730  23.2   3.2    6.1    .5   12.4  1x1678  1778   1265  1945
USA    P-43 Lancer      573  13.0   2.7    3.8   0     11.0  1x 895  1046    272  1941
USA    P-47 Thunderbolt 713  16.2   4.5    7.9   1.1   13.1  1x1938  1290  15677  1942
USA    F4U Corsair      717  22.1   4.2    5.6   1.8   12.6  1x1775  1617  12571  1942
Japan  Zero             534  15.7   1.7    2.8    .3   10.0  1x 700  3104  10939  1940
Japan  N1K Strong Wind  658  20.3   2.7    4.9    .5   10.8  1x1380  1716   1532  1943
Japan  Ki-84 "Gale"     686  18.3   2.7    4.2    .7   11.8  1x1522  2168   3514  1943
Japan  Ki-61            580  15.2   2.6    3.5    .5   11.6  1x 864   580   3078  1942
Japan  Ki-100           580  13.9   2.5    3.5   0     11.0  1x1120  2200    396  1945
Japan  A5M              440         1.2    1.8   0      9.8  1x 585  1200   1094  1936
Japan  A6M2             436  12.4   1.9    2.9    .1   10.0  1x 709  1782    327  1942
Japan  J2M Thunderbolt  655  23.4   2.8    3.2    .1   11.4  1x1379   560    671  1942
Japan  Ki-27            470  15.3   1.1    1.8    .1   12.2  1x 485   627   3368  1937
Japan  Ki-43            530         1.9    2.9    .5   11.2  1x 858  1760   5919  1941
Japan  Ki-44            605  19.5   2.1    3.0   0     11.2  1x1133         1225  1942
UK     Hawker Hurricane 547  14.1   2.6    4.0    .5   11.0  1x 883   965  14583  1943
UK     Hawker Tempest   700  23.9   4.2    6.2    .9   11.1  1x1625  1190   1702  1944
UK     Hawker Typhoon   663  13.6   4.0    6.0    .9   10.7  1x1685   821   3317  1941
UK   Submarine Seafire  578  13.4   2.8    3.5          9.8  1x1182   825   2334  1942
UK   Submarine Spitfire 595  13.2   2.3    3.0   0     11.1  1x1096   756  20351  1938
Ger.   Fw-190           685  17.0   3.5    4.8    .5   12.0  1x1287   835 >20000  1941
Ger.   Bf-109           640  17.0   2.2    3.4    .3   12.0  1x1085   850  34826  1937
SU     MiG-3            640  13.0   2.7    3.4    .2   12.0  1x 993   820   3172  1941
SU     Yak-1            592  15.4   2.4    2.9   0     10.0  1x 880   700   8700  1940
SU     Yak-3            655  18.5   2.1    2.7   0     10.7  1x 970   650   4848  1944
SU     Yak-7            571  12.0   2.4    2.9   0      9.5  1x 780   643   6399  1942
SU     Yak-9            672  16.7   2.5    3.2   0     10.6  1x1120   675  16769  1942
SU     LaGG-3           575  14.9   2.2    3.2    .2    9.7  1x 924  1000   6528  1941
SU     La-5             648  16.7   2.6    3.4    .2   11.0  1x1385   765   9920  1942
SU     La-7             661  15.7   3.3           .2   10.4  1x1230   665   5753  1944
SU     Polykarpov I-16  525  14.7   1.5    2.1    .5   14.7  1x 820   700   8644  1934

World War 2 aircraft carriers

U.S. Essex Class
U.S. Independence Class

Shokaku Class
Hiyo Class
Chitose Class

Unryu Class
Zuiho Class

       Class        Speed   Power  Length  Displace  Planes     #     Year
                     kph    MWatt    m       kton             built

USA    Essex         60.6   110     263      47       100      24     1942
USA    Independence  58      75     190      11        33       9     1942
Japan  Shokaku       63.9   120     257.5    32.1      72       2     1941
Japan  Hiyo          47.2    42     219.3    24.2      53       3     1944
Japan  Unryu         63     113     227.4    17.8      65       3     1944
Japan  Chitose       53.5    42.4   192.5    15.5      30       2     1944
Japan  Zuiho         52      39     205.5    11.4      30       2     1940